Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development Lev Vygotsky views collaboration with peers as an effective way of development. He suggests that more cooperative learning activities should be used in the classroom in which less capable students develop with assistance and support from more knowledgeable peers, within their zone of proximal development. In other words, according to Vygotsky, the task becomes â€Å"internalised through actual relations between† the students (Vygotsky, 1978:57) and successfully performed. In one of my English Literature lessons, I taught a group of Y11 second language learners how to answer and analyse a question using PEER (Point – Evidence –Explain – Reflect) technique. The students were revising exam-type questions and had to be ready for analysis. I started with a demonstration activity from the novel I am the King of the Castle. With some leading questions, I started analysing the point, involving the students in finding evidence, linkers, explanation, etc. As soon as the students were assigned with an individual task, the majority of them (7 out of 10) were able to perform with no challenges due to their prior knowledge and vocabulary. On the other hand, the ‘ripe’ students were not able to follow the critical task unaided. Therefore, they were paired with more able students to practise analysis, finding evidence, explaining and evaluating. The less able students were doing it correctly till the point when more criticality needed. With a little aid from a more competent peer, they developed conceptual learning. In future lessons, given a similar task, students will be able to perform with more confidence; and once it is internalised, scaffolding might be removed. I think as a conceptual tool for teachers the ZPD is very helpful in developing a curriculum which will challenge students’ learning and enable them to enquire; it also helps teachers in effective grouping of students where less able students can achieve with some guidance and support from more competent students. Finally, the ZPD might be helpful in assessing students’ abilities in order to decide their year group distribution. ===================================================================================== In this specific lesson, I managed scaffolding the group of Y11 second language students to write effectively. My main objective was how to write interesting, imaginative and thoughtful texts, using appropriate and effective vocabulary. (The lesson objectives were taken from the Writing Assessment Foci (AF1/AF7) of the National Curriculum.) Due to the different ability level of students, I demonstrated all the instructional options summarised by Wood, (1988). In the video clip, David Wood explained evidently the difference between contingent teaching and scaffolding, highlighting that scaffolding is â€Å"a functional analysis of the kinds of activities that a teacher might undertake to simplify the students’ learning; whereas contingency is about interaction, process, it’s how teachers go about of supporting a particular individual when they are setting out to learn.† Therefore, I involved all the five instructional options as aspects of scaffolding. I introduced the lesson objectives and outcomes of writing effectively, and assigned the students to write a one line description of a man who is smiling coldly. My verbal instruction was to look at their partner’s work and compare their responses, ensuring that the sentences matched the assessment foci. The more competent students performed very well because of their pre-existing knowledge of literary devices, sentence structure, effective vocabulary, and the ability to look at the context, whilst the less capable students used very simple and uncomplicated sentences. At this point, I provided some prompt by asking them to write a one line description of a man who is smiling coldly, using the word ARCTIC. This time, the students also worked individually and upon their task completion, I asked them to compare their responses with the model sentence on the board: â€Å"Mr. Fisher had a smile of arctic brightness.† While working as a class and comparing their sentences, t he students then had to consider how the description worked there, what literary devices were used to make the sentence more effective. Obviously, a few of the students with less competence could construct a sentence with the word ‘arctic’ because they did not know what it meant. I then provided a thesaurus support, asking them to first look up the word and then, using some other techniques of personification or imagery and careful sentence structure to construct a sentence, which meets the objectives of the lesson. The students still struggled with the use of a simile, metaphor, etc.; therefore, a group of more knowledgeable students was swapped to provide support to those less competent peers by sharing their examples, reinforcing the use of literary devices, using effective vocabulary and correct structure. With the additional support, the students came up with a variety of sentences. They were also provided with a checklist of expected skills they needed to accomplish the task. This was done as a class work, thoroughly read and explained. In Wood’s terminology, this was a stage where I demonst rated contingent teaching with the features of interactive instruction. I indicated the material and prepared them for the assembly. The rest of the lesson was spent in focus on exploring the necessary skills in writing; and the students were assigned with a final task of writing a character description using one of their carefully crafted sentences as a starting point. To sum up, I should put together Wood’s theory of scaffolding: General Verbal Prompt (GVP) was given throughout the lesson to give instruction and introduce the topic, etc. Special Verbal Instruction (SVI) was given as well when the students had to construct their own sentences and compare them either with their partners or with the model. Even though this work was done individually, the students still could do this unaided, due to their pre-existing knowledge. Indicating Material (IM) was the next step when I suggested the use of a dictionary, constantly reminded the students of the AFs, objectives of the lesson, and provided the assistance of more competent students to help to successfully accomplish the task. To prepare for the assembly of the final writing piece using literary devices, appropriate and effective vocabulary, and an effectively written text, the students were distributed a checklist and framework of expected skills explored during the lesson. A demonstration (DEM) of how to write imaginary and thoughtful sentences using an effective word choice was also used throughout the lesson by sharing model sentences with all the students to facilitate their work and understanding. Throughout the lesson, there was a varied level of teacher interaction supporting the students to ‘internalise’ the knowledge and complete the task successfully, at which point, the teacher should have not intervene. The following lesson aimed at peer marking and spotting mistakes and the discussion of the skills acquired during the previous lesson. ===================================================================================== Child-centred learning has been advocated by several educationalists and psychologists for many years. Its basic emphasis is children’s individual interests and needs in education, which may vary in terms of development rates and the nature of the teacher’s control. The term ‘child-centeredness’ is related to children’s individual needs and decisions about the curriculum and the teacher’s role in the classroom. However, since child development theories vary, child-centred learning also varies in a classroom. Pioneers in child development theory, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygostsky, observe considerable differences between cognitive and social constructivist theories assigned to each individual child and the social context of play in their development. They both support the idea of knowledge construction by individuals. However, Piaget believes that knowledge is a product of the individual and the environment. Vygostky, on the other hand, advocates the idea that knowledge is constructed due to social interaction and then internalised by guidance. Piaget and Vygostky differently promote the relationship between learning and development: Piaget believes that development follows learning, whilst Vygotsky shows that learning leads to development and plays a vital role in it. He states that â€Å"†¦the only ‘good learning’ is that which is in advance of development† (Vygotsky, Mind in Society and the ZPD, 2002:113). Both theorists emphasise, though, that peer interaction and cooperation promote children’s learning. Since Piaget’s and Vygostky’s child-centred approaches vary greatly, their implication in a classroom varies as well. Piaget’s approach relies on the liberty of children and appropriate environment for learning, where children learn by exploring things by themselves. Those with Vygotsky’s approach, provide a balance between teacher-directed and child-initiated classroom, where teachers provide assistance to ensure that the children are able to attain a higher l evel within their ZPD. Other theorists, John Dewey and Maria Montessori, have also played a significant role in child-centred learning theory development. Despite the similarities in their belief that some guidance is important for children to help them develop their intelligence, they both have different perspectives about the role of children’s freedom in education and the teacher’s role in the classroom. Dewey believes that democratic schooling is based on child-centeredness where learning means experiencing. Being a progressivist, he believes in the development of the ability in children to function well in the larger democratic society and attain personal fulfilment. Dewey emphasises that the construction of children’s freedom of intelligence via observation is more important than their freedom of will. Therefore, he summons up the teachers to act as a representative of the children’s interests as a whole. They should create self-control in children, which will assist the t eacher to understand the aim of education. Montessori, by contrast, sees teachers’ authority in the support they give to the children rather than in their â€Å"dignity†. She believes that orderly environment and appropriate materials will promote children’s development. Teachers, therefore, should prepare motives and inspire children to develop without any direct instruction. I think the combination of all four theories is beneficial for my understanding of child-centeredness in education and in conceptualised classroom situations. Piaget’s cognitive constructivist theory helps me understand when children have freedom to explore and construct knowledge, they make choice and experience. Vygotsky’s social constructivist theory can help me understand children’s ability to develop with adult guidance to attain their ZPD. Dewey’s understanding of children’s freedom of intelligence to promote learning will assist me how to nurture this with guidance for each individual’s constant growth. Finally, Montessori’s support of each child’s potential to have inner drive to learn, will help me remove all the obstacles that impede learning. ===================================================================================== Nowadays, Early Years Education (EYE) has a mixture of their foundation in the work of Montessori and her critics W. Kilpatrick and J. Dewey. A confident Early Year practitioner should be aware of the ways how children learn and develop; support them in solving problems and making decisions; and provide them with practice and roles to enhance learning. The Montessori method has been partially embraced by the International Community School in Amman, Jordan, where I am currently working. Some of the pedagogic principles, however, have not been accepted by the school administration due to their understanding of the method as â€Å"purely academic, mechanistic and rigid†. Below, I will demonstrate the aspects which are currently practised in the school, and which I, a Secondary Teacher, have observed as part of my EC in Lower Primary. One aspect of â€Å"good practice† in Foundation Stage of the school is that the teachers utilise activities in â€Å"sensory rich† environment. The students are guided and supported to learn to interact and thus develop independent learning. In this environment, the children choose their activities and learn by doing. Montessori believes that training senses is fundamental and that it will promote the basis for the development of imagination. According to her, intellect should be developed early, through stimulation of senses, as a basis for the development of imagination and social relationships (Montessori, 1964). The FS teachers do apply this aspect of learning because they find it fruitful: students become prepared for KS1 as â€Å"self-directed†, independent students, who are able to perform and master inter-connected and challenging tasks. On the other hand, W. Kilpatrick argues in his book The Montessori Method Examined (1914), that imagination and social relations should be developed before the intellect because the premature development of the intellect can stifle creativity. Kilpatrick believes in the opposite that providing children with â€Å"socially conditioned environment† will create a spontaneous unity of groups to work out their tasks. This suggests that children will develop their imagination and social relationship by â€Å"cooperating† with each other. The FS teachers apply this aspect of learning in their classroom as well, believing that only through their [teachers’] â€Å"consideration† and â€Å"suggestion† (p.20) can the students cooperate socially and learn effectively. Another aspect of â€Å"good practice† utilised by the FS teachers is the child’s liberty. Montessori believes that students’ free choice and freedom on the â€Å"educational playground† can be advantageous and can promote their free self-expression. This is practised in my school with caution, however. The teachers as well as Kilpatrick believe that too much liberty will not lead to â€Å"right conduct† (p.23). He emphasises that â€Å"†¦in the effort to suppress†¦ impulses, a certain amount of positive pain association (â€Å"punishment†) will prove necessary†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p.24). Thus, having acquired a positive self-expression with the guidance and support of the teacher, the child develops self-discipline and â€Å"proper conduct† (p.24). Finally, one more aspect of â€Å"good practice† applied in FS of my school is that the students exercise â€Å"practical life† in their classroom. Activities like cooking, cleaning, serving, setting tables, washing hands, constructing, etc. become so intrinsically meaningful that the students develop their potential to perform these tasks with interest and concentration. Utilising this approach, teachers create the Montessori model which is â€Å"the school should fit the needs of the students.† This means that the Montessori curriculum is based on the students spending a lot of time taking part in different sessions of uninterrupted activities, which last several hours. These activities contain a variety of independent and group-solving tasks related to different subjects: maths, science, music, geography, etc. Here, Kilpatrick agrees with Montessori that â€Å"schools should function more definitely as a social institution, adapting itself to its own environm ent, utilising more fully actual-life situation† (p.41). In contrast to a Montessori classroom, the FS classrooms are NOT mixed age, but are counterparts. This is why the teachers mix the children according their abilities when less-able students are supported by more capable students. To conclude, our students are a combination of the Montessori Method and a modern democratic school, where the child’s day is a mixture of activities, starting from unstructured approach – where the students play and learn independently and ending with highly structured approach – where the tasks are teacher-directed and there is little play. Other activities are focused learning, when students are guided by the teacher and play and learn via experiential activities; and finally, the activities are child-initiated, when students interact sensibly and sensitively in a supportive and enabling environment. All these approaches are used by Early Year Foundation Stages (EYFS) in international schools in Amman. ===================================================================================== Freire’s views explicitly recognise the relationship between education and knowledge. He emphasises that liberal education would build on the knowledge resources and agency of learners: â€Å"Liberation education consists in acts of cognition, not transferals of information† (Freire, 2002:366). In Jordanian education system, however, â€Å"the raison d’etre of liberation education† lies in its didactic approach of teaching – the ‘banking’ concept of education – where teachers are ‘depositors’ and students are ‘depositories’. The system heavily relies on memorisation techniques, which is done for the academic performance. Students are required to learn from seven to ten subjects within the period of two years. At the end of the two-year, they sit for the end-of-year external examinations. The students’ learning styles involve a lot of writing and memorising; the classes are teacher-centred and in â€Å"transferals of information†; the content is massive and should be covered in a two-year period; and time constraints are obstacles to interactive lessons. Within this short time framework, students and teachers work hard to cover the content of learning, which is overwhelming. They display their â€Å"absolute ignorance† towards the â€Å"oppressed† situation and fail to respond to the â€Å"essence of consciousness†. They also fail to recognise cognition and thus, do not â€Å"establish an authentic form of thought and action.† (p.366) Problem-posing education would liberate Jordanian state school students if they were taught facts of the reasons and means of humans’ existence; if teachers regarded dialogue as a precondition to cognition; if students were taught how to think critically; if they built their understanding on creativity, etc. I believe the Jordanian education system would be one of the best if they accepted individuals as â€Å"historical beings† to clearly acknowledge their present, past and their willingness to †wisely build the future† (p.367).

Are Women Slaves to Fashion and Beauty? Essay -- Feminism Feminist Wom

Are Women Slaves to Beauty?      Ã‚   What does it take to feel beautiful? Perhaps a little bit of time, make-up, and a breathtaking dress; or at least that's what we have been programmed to believe.   Without a doubt, all of the magazines, advertisements, and make-up beauty tips have influenced women’s beliefs about what it means to be beautiful. An artificial image of beauty has been imposed on each and every woman in our culture.    I would like to begin with the fact that women have always been known to dedicate their time to beauty. Those who are devoted to their appearance most often believe that beauty brings power, popularity, and success. Women believe this, because they grow up reading magazines that picture beautiful women in successful environments; not to mention they are popular models and world famous individuals. Beautiful women are no longer just a priority for most advertising, but we have become a walking target for the working class employers. It is documented that better-looking attorneys earn more than others after five years of practice, which was an effect that grew with experience (Biddle, 172). We cannot overlook the fact that it is always the most popular and most beautiful girl who becomes homecoming-queen or prom-queen. While these are possible positive effects of the "beauty myth," the negative results of female devotion to beauty undercut this value. These effects are that it costs a lot of money, it costs a lot of time, and in the long run, it costs a lot of pain.    First, women spend huge amounts of money to improve their looks. So here we are unable to escape the reality that we can never be flawless or blemish free; moreover, as long as women have the belief that all greatness de... ...take pleasure in making yourselves up "is like telling you to stop enjoying food, sex, or love" (Newsweek vl127, 68). Just don't let it run your life, and stop feeling that beauty should be valued by what is seen on the outside. Now go out, buy your Prom dress, and do it for fun. Not for who or what you should be.    Works Cited Biddle, Jeff E & Hamermesh, David S. (1998). Beauty, Productivity, and Discrimination: Lawyers' Look and Lucre. Journal of Labor Economics, 16(30). 172. Morin, Carole. (1997). Dead Glamorous. UK: National Publishing Company. Malkin, Carole. (1990, February), True Colors-Make-Up That's Tailor-made for You. Working Woman, 104. Schmid, Wendy. (1994, August). Making Up. Vogue, 198. Lieberman, Rhonda. (1995, April). Guys and Dolls. Artform, 21. Springen, Karen. (1996, June). Eyes of the Beholders. Newsweek, 68.   

Impact of life skills training on HIV and AIDS prevention

This was a qualitative research where data about the implementation were gathered through interviews and focus group discussions with chool principals, teachers and students. A sample of 4 principals, 8 teachers and 64 students was used in the study. Students were assessed on knowledge, attitudes, perceptions and behaviour. Results showed that students exhibited high levels of knowledge of HIV and AIDS issues but their behaviour remained incongruent with this knowledge.The study also revealed that effectiveness of this prevention strategy is reduced due to teachers' perception of this part of the curriculum as secondary, since they concentrate on examinable courses. From the research it was evident that imited resources and conflicting goals in the education system had a negative impact on the programme. The research made clear the need to make the teaching of life skills more practical by exposing students to real life situations through linkages with HIV and AIDS organizations work ing within the community.Key Words: Life skills, Evaluation, Behaviour Change, BACKGROUND AIDS is amongst the leading causes of deaths worldwide and has had insurmountable negative effects on countries, in the socio-cultural, economic and political domains. Different countries have employed different strategies in an effort o combat the devastating effects of HIV and AIDS. Some of these strategies include increased condom availability and use, promotion of abstinence and life skills training amongst the youth in schools and communities.According to The Global Working Group on HIV and AIDS (1998; 8) since HIV infection is invariably the result of human behaviour, change in behaviour has long been understood as essential to curbing the spread of 1 infection. This assertion is corroborated by Gachuhi (1999;iv) who argues that in the absence of a cure, the best way to deal with HIV and AIDS is through prevention by eveloping and/or changing behaviour and values.V prevention nas been app roached trom ditterent angles; most countries nave used primarily or at least included HIV awareness and education as a strategy to combat HIV with the aim of changing people†s perceptions and attitudes as these ultimately influence their behaviour. Therefore the ultimate goal is then to catch them young and create an awareness that can help eradicate the spread of HIV and AIDS. Zimbabwe is amongst the countries that undertook a behaviour change based approach to HIV prevention. As cited on the National AIDS Council (NAC) website ?theBehaviour Change Communication programme started in 2006 after a Comprehensive Review of Behaviour Change as a means of preventing sexual HIV transmission in Zimbabwe. A National Behaviour Change Strategy was then developed after this review with the aim of addressing the major ways of HIV transmission in this country. † It is assumed that between 80 and 90% of infections are due to sexual transmission. Hence, promoting the adoption of safe sexual behaviours remains at the heart of HIV prevention in Zimbabwe (SAfAlDS, 2013).Zimbabwe†s focus was on primary prevention of HIV through behaviour change strategies. It has since recorded a decrease in HIV incidence. In 1997, an estimated 29% of adults were living with HIV in Zimbabwe. One decade later in 2007, that number had fallen to 16%. HIV prevalence in Zimbabwe declined from 23. 2% in 2003 and even further to 14. 3% in 2009. (UNFPA, 2008). Different scholars and analysts have attributed this decline to various factors, resulting in a debate.One such analyst from News From Africa propounded that â€Å"The behavioural changes associated with HIV reduction†mainly reductions in extramarital, commercial, and casual sexual relations, and associated reductions in artner concurrency†appear to have been stimulated primarily by increased awareness of AIDS deaths and secondarily by the countrys economic deterioration. Others have suggested increased mortality du e to poor health service delivery (Leach-Lemens; 2012). There is consensus however that there is indeed a reduction in HIV prevalence in Zimbabwe and that there are indications of behaviour change. The authors conclude that these â€Å"findings provide 2 the first convincing evidence of an HIV decline accelerated by changes in sexual behaviour in a southern African country. † (Gregson et al; 2010). Gachuhi (1999; 10) asserts that young people offer a window of hope in stopping the spread of HIV/AIDS if they have been reached by Life Skills Programmes. This assertion brings out the importance that is placed in a country†s youth as it represents the country†s future.Zimbabwe as a nation identifies with this perspective and has found it laudable to invest in the future of its youth by making it a target group tor H V prevention education. However, the youth are taced with several challenges that also make them vulnerable to HIV. Kalanda (2010;169) asserts that young people have demands and challenges due to their physiological, sychological, social and economic situations. Among these demands and challenges are peer pressure into drug and substance abuse, early sexual debut leading to sexually transmitted diseases (ST's) including HIV.A review by UNICEF (2000) found that life skills education is effective in educating youth on alcohol, tobacco and other drug abuse, nutrition, pregnancy prevention and preventing ST's including HIV. Moya (2002) states that research demonstrates that possessing life skills may be critical to young people's ability to positively adapt to and deal with the demands and challenges of life. According to Kalanda (2010:172) the objective of Life skills and HIV and AIDS education is to empower pupils and their teachers with life skills for HIV prevention, sex and sexuality issues.This coincides with the research conducted for The Global Monitoring Report ?Youth and Skills: Putting education to work† which shows the importance of investing in life skills education in school to ensure children have the confidence and negotiating skills to say no to sex and negotiate condom use. Objectives of the study The study seeks to evaluate the implementation of the life skills and HIV and AIDS ducation programmes in schools as stipulated by the Ministry of Education? The study also seeks to assess the contribution of these life skills training programmes in Zimbabwean schools to HIV prevention.It aims to assess the levels of knowledge about HIV and AIDS, risk perception, attitudes and behaviour of the students in these schools. Challenges that present drawbacks in the implementation of these programmes will hopefully be unearthed as well. 3 Research Questions 1. How is Life skills and HIV and AIDS education perceived as part of the curriculum by both teachers and students in schools? . Is the programme achieving its desired goals of increasing knowledge and decreasing risky behaviour? 3.Do the teachers ass igned for life skills and HIV and AIDS education have the necessary training and material to use in the teaching of this part of the curriculum? 4. What are the challenges faced by the teachers in imparting life skills and HIV and AIDS knowledge? Participants / Sample The sample used in the study consisted of 4 principals, 8 teachers and 64 students. Purposive sampling was used for the selection of principals and teachers for the study from the respective schools. Selection of principals was automatic as the principal of each of the four schools was involved while 2 teachers were selected trom each ot the tour schools.The criterion used to select these teachers was that they were the ones responsible within the school for Life skills and HIV and AIDS education. The students were selected using stratified random sampling; 16 students from each school, 8 from each of the forms four and six as they are about to leave school and enter ?the real world†. There was an equal represent ation for both male and female student participants in the study. Data collection instruments The study employed interviews and focus group discussions as data collection instruments.Interviews were held with the principals and teachers while data from students was generated through focus group discussions. Data Collection Procedure Interviews were held individually with each of the principals and teachers in a bid to maintain confidentiality and promote openness especially since some of the issues could be considered sensitive. Each principal availed time to the researchers for the focus group discussions to be held. The two researchers alternated in the facilitation f data generation from the interviews with the other researcher recording the proceedings.Focus group discussions were conducted for each of the four schools for the sake of convenience and ease of access to the students. Two focus group discussions were held at each of the four schools; one for the girls facilitated b y the female 4 researcher and the other one for the boys facilitated by the male researcher. This allowed for free participation and contribution by students as they identified with a facilitator of their gender. Data analysis Data was analysed thematically according to the main ideas emerging from the nterviews and focus group discussions.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results: Demography of participants The students who participated were in forms four and six and with an age range of 16 – 18 years. The sample in terms of gender was comprised of 32 female students and 32 male students. For the principals 3 were male whilst one was female. They all had a first degree as their minimum level of education. All the teachers had a Diploma in Education as their minimum qualification. In addition to the diploma, 5 of the teachers also had a first degree. Knowledge about HIV and AIDS issuesThe students exhibited high levels of knowledge about HIV and AIDS issues. Most students were aware ot the possible me tnods ot transmission ot H V They were able to correctly answer questions on methods of preventing HIV transmission even including ideas of their reliability for example highlighting the disadvantages of condom use even going into an interesting debate about the feasibility and challenges of consistent condom use in or out of marriage. The students indicated that they knew that the best method of prevention from the virus was abstinence before marriage.Basic knowledge about the nature of HIV and AIDS, transmission and prevention appeared to be at their fingertips but when broadened to other areas of sexual reproductive health the level of knowledge significantly reduced. Students were not aware of measures that could be taken to protect their reproductive organs. Boys were better aware of male circumcision because of the national campaign advocating for male circumcision. Even girls were aware of the advantages of male circumcision. Very few (17%) of both boys and gi rls were aware of procedures such as PAP SMEAR for the screening of cervical cancer.Most students were also not well versed with strategies and precautions to be taken during home based care of HIV positive individuals citing that they had never had to deal with an ill person on a personal level. Only a few (36%) had had personal contact and real life experiences of helping to take care of or live in the same household with an HIV positive individual. They agreed though that most did have relatives infected by HIV. Very few students knew what life skills were and what the advantages of learning them were.The few who knew life skills indicated that they had learnt them in other ettings that were not school. They also indicated that their knowledge of life skills was minimal and they were not confident that other could apply these skills to the extent of claiming to possess them. Most of them could only name at most two life skills. Behaviour A significant portion of the students (35% ) indicated that they were sexually active whilst 80% indicated that they knew at least one friend who was sexually active amongst their friends of school-going age.The reasons given by some of them for engaging in sexual activity included; â€Å"Some of us will already have been sexually ctive when we first encounter such programmes so it very difficult to stop. Some have tried to do so but still find themselves engaging again. One feels bad during the period that we will be learning these things but once we finish and with time the feeling fades away. And also it is difficult to convince your boyfriend about such things as abstaining that you would have learnt at school. Some of those who said they were not sexually active stated that they did however fondle with their boyfriends but did not engage in intercourse. Despite displaying nowledge about male circumcision only 5% ot the boys admitted to having been circumcised. They acknowledged the importance but cited that they Just h ad not gotten round to getting it done though they intended to do so. The principals indicated that the number of female students dropping out of school due to teenage pregnancies had decreased significantly over the past ten years.They indicated that the mean number of drop outs was now 2 per year as compared to the 7-8 of previous years. Students' perception of the programme The majority of students (90%) viewed the programme as insignificant citing that ven their teachers did not take it seriously. They conceded however that the material they could potentially learn from the programme was important. They stated that given the pressure they sometimes 6 faced with balancing school work and responsibilities or chores at home there was very little time to concentrate on non-examinable courses, especially since they were approaching final examinations (Ordinary Level).They argued that there was no reason for them to focus on such a course when everywhere they went they also heard abou t HIV and AIDS. One student said â€Å"Why would I risk failing the important ubjects that have to do with my future by concentrating on a subject that I won't even be examined on and will not help me to get a place at high school, university or even a Job. There is no Job where they will ask you if you did life skills. † Another student said: â€Å"Those who are interested in such things Join the AIDS club, that is why it is there. The study revealed that the programme was indeed viewed as being of slight importance. The students also highlighted that it was boring and a waste of time because most of what they learnt about HIV and AIDS they already knew and was like revision to them. Teachers' perceptions of the programme The interviews also revealed that teachers thought that the Life skills and HIV and AIDS education programme was minor as compared to the core subjects they taught. So minor in fact that the implementation of this programme was entirely at the discretion o f the teacher assigned to do so.If the teacher chose not to there were no repercussions on their part. One teacher stated that â€Å"With the state the Zimbabwean economy is in and the fact that teachers are grossly underpaid, we only do the work we absolutely have to do which is teaching the core subjects we are paid to teach. Life skills and HIV and AIDS are extra-curricular and not as important because no one will assess whether you have taught it or not whilst our teaching of core subjects will be reflected in the students' results after examinations. † The study revealed that 7 out of the 8 teachers (87. %) interviewed admitted to never having taught the module seriously as they were not motivated enough to try and change the status quo. The teachers intimated that their perceptions of the programme were also influenced by their administration†s attitude towards the programme. They argued that if the administration was not taking the programme eriously who were the y to do so? Challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of the programme Teachers highlighted a number of issues that according to them hindered the effective implementation of the Life skills and HIV and AIDS programme in their schools.They cited the shortage of or entire lack of material to use in the teaching of Life skills and HIV and AIDS. They mentioned that the only material available was for example a chapter on reproductive sexual health in a biology textbook where they mention HIV and AIDS in passing. They argued that this was not sufficient to comprise a omprehensive syllabus for the entire programme. Life skills were even more challenging to teach as there was no material available and the teachers themselves were not well versed with them.Teachers highlighted that the HIV and AIDS part of the programme was easier to teach since most people had the knowledge and they had been exposed to the subject matter at their teachers† colleges. However life skills were a different matter and they did not have the adequate knowledge about life skills and how to teach them to their students. This presented a challenge in the effective implementation of he programme as teachers tended to focus on the part they were confident about; HIV and AIDS.They conceded that life skills and HIV and AIDS education were an important part of the curriculum but argued that they did not have enough time to teach these as the core subjects and extra-curricular activities such as sports and clubs took up all the students† time. Life skills and HIV and AIDS education was therefore relegated to the AIDS club, membership of which was optional for students. Teachers cited that even the administration viewed the programme as secondary uch that if one tried to teach it seriously and request the material to teach it they were viewed as embarking on a futile attempt to try and change the status quo.They said the schools† administrations were of the perception that there were better things to spend the schools† resources on than the life skills programme. The principals indicated that the resources available to their schools were inadequate and they had to make difficult decisions in order to uphold the integrity and quality of their schools and these included prioritising the core subjects since they were xaminable and had direct impact on the schools† performance rating.Discussion: This paper evaluated the implementation of the life skills and HIV and AIDS programme in Zimbabwean schools based on a number of factors; the expected outcomes of increased 8 knowledge levels and decreased risky behaviour, indicators of behaviour change and perceptions of the programme which would affect acceptance by students and implementation by teachers. Though knowledge levels on basic H d AIDS knowledge was high they are still not high enough.This concurs with the research conducted for The Global Monitoring Report ?Youth and Skills: Putting edu cation to work† which states that tests in fourteen countries in South and East Africa (including Zimbabwe) showed that only 7% of school children in the regions have the desired level of knowledge on HIV and AIDS; and Just 36% have even the minimum level of knowledge. Students† knowledge of life skills is even lower indicating that life skills and HIV and AIDS issues are not being taught well if at all in these schools.Perhaps even the knowledge of HIV and AIDS issues was not as a result of the programme but other sources external to the school. The fact that teachers consider life skills and HIV and AIDS education as extra- curricular indicates that it is side-lined when it should be considered core. Even the students do not attach much value to it citing that it does not assist them to secure a place for further education or a Job.This is without realizing that some people with very good educational qualifications are failing to secure good Jobs due to ill health as a result of bad decisions resulting from a lack of life skills. A major lack of motivation is evident when teachers indicate that they only do what they are paid for. Perhaps even the core subjects are not being taught well for this reason. Incentives have been introduced in schools to attempt to address this lack of motivation but even then these are viewed as inadequate and are different from school to school.Life skills and HIV and AIDS education is perceived by all; administration, teachers and students, as extra-curricular and therefore not very important requiring only a minimal perfunctory browse. If this is how the programme is viewed by the intended implementers there is no way it will be effectively implemented. Concerning teacher ormation and development in the context of HIVAIDS Chamba (2011 suggests that teachers have to be trained in life skills HIV-AIDS education prevention in order to teach HIV- AIDS and also to protect themselves from HIV infections.Recommendations t o improve on implementation of programme The modules on life skills and HIV and AIDS should be made examinable so as to be taken more seriously by both the teachers and the students. 9 The programme should also include the involvement of the students in HIV prevention initiatives through organisations working within the community so as to ive them a more practical bearing of the issues they learn instead of them remaining abstract ideas.Students should be exposed to real life situations where they actually come to a realization of the effects of HIV and AIDS so as to realize the impo rtance ot what they learn. This programme should be planned in such a manner that it runs continuously from primary school into secondary school so that life skills training and HIV and AIDS education are not a once off event but a continuous process providing the necessary reinforcement and revision where necessary. Teachers need to be adequately trained to teach life skills and HIV and AIDS related is sues.The programme needs to be supported practically at all levels, that it the provision of resources by the Ministry of Education and each school administration, consistent evaluation of the programme so as to ensure that it is being implemented as best as is possible. Parents should be involved so that the children are provided with consistent, noncontradictory information and are supported in the endeavour to change or develop healthy sexual behaviours.

Poll Tax Definition and Importance

Community Charge / Poll Tax Definition and Importance The Community Charge (Poll Tax) was a new system of taxation introduced in Scotland in 1989 and England and Wales in 1990 by the then ruling Conservative government. The Community Charge replaced the Rates, a system of tax where a certain amount was charged by the local council depending on the rental value of a house - with a flat rate charge paid by every adult, earning the nickname Poll Tax as a result. The value of the charge was set by the local authority and was intended, as was the Rates, to fund each local council’s provision of the infrastructure and services needed by each community. Reaction to the Poll Tax The tax proved deeply unpopular: while students and the unemployed only had to pay a small percentage, large families using a relatively small house saw their charges go up considerably, and the tax was thus accused of saving the rich money and moving the expenses onto the poor. As the actual cost of the tax varied by council – they could set their own levels – some areas ended up charging a great deal more; councils were also accused of using the new tax to try and obtain more money by charging more; both caused further upset. There was a widespread outcry over the tax and opposition groups formed; some advocated a refusal to pay, and in some areas, large quantities of people didn’t. At one point the situation turned violent: a major march in London in 1990 turned into a riot, with 340 arrested and 45 policemen injured, the worst riots in London for over a century. There were other disturbances elsewhere in the country. Consequences of the Poll Tax Margaret Thatcher, the Prime Minister of the period, had personally identified herself with the Poll Tax and was determined it should remain. She was already far from a popular figure, having exhausted the bounce from the Falklands War, attacked trade unions and other aspects of Britain associated with the labour movement, and pushed on a transformation from a manufacturing society into one of service industry (and, if accusations are true, from community values to cold consumerism). The communitys disdain was directed at her and her government, undermining her position and giving not just other parties a chance to attack her, but her colleagues in her Conservative Party. In late 1990 she was challenged for the leadership of the party (and thus the nation) by Michael Heseltine; although she defeated him, she had not won enough votes to stop a second round and she resigned, fatally undermined by the tax. Her successor, John Major, became Prime Minister, withdrew the Community Charge and replaced it with a system similar to the Rates, once more based on a house’s value. He was able to win the next election. Over twenty-five years later, the Poll Tax is still a source of anger for many people in Britain, taking its place in the bile that makes Margaret Thatcher the most divisive Britain of the twentieth century. It has to be considered a massive mistake.

Ethan Allen - American Revolution

Ethan Allen - American Revolution Birth: Ethan Allen was born at Litchfield, CT, on January 21, 1738, to Joseph and Mary Baker Allen. The eldest of eight children, Allen moved with his family to nearby Cornwall, CT shortly after his birth. Raised on the family farm, he saw his father become increasingly prosperous and serve as a town selectman. Educated locally, Allen furthered his studies under the tutelage of a minister in Salisbury, CT with the hopes of gaining admission to Yale College. Though possessing the intellect for higher education, he was prevented attending Yale when his father died in 1755. Rank Titles: During the French Indian War, Ethan Allen served as a private in the colonial ranks. After moving to Vermont, he was elected colonel commandant of the local militia, better known as the Green Mountain Boys. During the early months of the American Revolution, Allen held no official rank in the Continental Army. Upon his exchange and release by the British in 1778, Allen was given the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Continental Army and major general of militia. After returning to Vermont later that year, he was made a general in the Army of Vermont. Personal Life: While working as the part owner of an iron foundry in Salisbury, CT, Ethan Allen married Mary Brownson in 1762.  Though a largely unhappy union due to their increasingly conflicting personalities, the couple had five children (Loraine, Joseph, Lucy, Mary Ann, Pamela) before Marys death from consumption in 1783. A year later, Allen married Frances Fanny Buchanan. The union produced three children, Fanny, Hannibal, and Ethan. Fanny would survive her husband and lived until 1834. Peacetime: With the French Indian War well underway in 1757, Allen elected to join the militia and take part in an expedition to relieve the Siege of Fort William Henry. Marching north, the expedition soon learned that the Marquis de Montcalm had captured the fort.   Assessing the situation, Allens unit decided to return to Connecticut.   Returning to farming, Allen bought into an iron foundry in 1762. Making an effort to expand the business, Allen soon found himself in debt and sold off part of his farm. He also also sold part of his stake in the foundry to his brother Hemen.   The business continued to founder and in 1765 the brothers gave up their stake to their partners. The following years saw Allen and his family moved several times with stops in Northampton, MA, Salisbury, CT, and Sheffield, MA. Vermont: Moving north to the New Hampshire Grants (Vermont) in 1770 at the behest of several locals, Allen became embroiled in the controversy over which colony controlled the region. In this period, the territory of Vermont was claimed jointly by the colonies of New Hampshire and New York, and both issued competing land grants to settlers. As a holder of grants from New Hampshire, and wishing to associate Vermont with New England, Allen aided took in legal proceedings to defend their claims. When these went in New Yorks favor, he returned to Vermont and helped found the Green Mountain Boys at the Catamount Tavern. An anti-New York militia, the unit consisted of companies from several towns and sought to resist Albanys efforts to take control of the region. With Allen as its colonel commandant and several hundred in the ranks, the Green Mountain Boys effectively controlled Vermont between 1771 and 1775. With the beginning of the American Revolution in April 1775, an irregular Connecticut militia unit reached out to Allen for assistance in capturing the principle British base in the region, Fort Ticonderoga. Located at the south edge of Lake Champlain, the fort commanded the lake and the route to Canada. Agreeing to lead the mission, Allen began assembling his men and the necessary supplies. The day before their planned attack, they were interrupted by the arrival of Colonel Benedict Arnold who had been sent north to seize the fort by the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. Fort Ticonderoga Lake Champlain: Commissioned by the government of Massachusetts, Arnold claimed that he was to have overall command of the operation. Allen disagreed, and after the Green Mountain Boys threatened to return home, the two colonels decided to share command. On May 10, 1775, Allen and Arnolds men stormed Fort Ticonderoga, capturing its entire forty-eight man garrison. Moving up the lake, they captured Crown Point, Fort Ann, and Fort St. John in the weeks that followed. Canada Captivity: That summer, Allen and his chief lieutenant, Seth Warner, traveled south to Albany and received support for the formation of a Green Mountain Regiment. They returned north and Warner was given command of the regiment, while Allen was placed in charge of a small force of Indians and Canadians. On September 24, 1775, during an ill-advised attack on Montreal, Allen was captured by the British. Initially considered a traitor, Allen was shipped to England and imprisoned at Pendennis Castle in Cornwall. He remained a prisoner until being exchanged for Colonel Archibald Campbell in May 1778. Vermont Independence: Upon gaining his freedom, Allen opted to return to Vermont, which had declared itself an independent republic during his captivity. Settling near present-day Burlington, he remained active in politics and was named a general in the Army of Vermont. Later that year, he traveled south and asked the Continental Congress to recognize Vermonts status as an independent state. Unwilling to anger New York and New Hampshire, Congress declined to honor his request. For the remainder of the war, Allen worked with his brother Ira and other Vermonters to ensure that their claims to the land were upheld. This went as far as negotiating with the British between 1780 and 1783, for military protection and possible inclusion in the British Empire. For these actions, Allen was charged with treason, however since it was clear that his goal had been to force the Continental Congress into taking action on the Vermont issue the case was never pursued. After the war, Allen retired to his farm where he lived until his death in 1789.

Utopianism and Idealism in Boy Meets Boy Assignment

Utopianism and Idealism in Boy Meets Boy - Assignment Example Does this utopian secondary school give false want to LGBTQ youthful mature people that there could one day be a world like this where everybody is so tolerating? I might contend that as opposed to imparting a false trust in junior book fans that Levithan give adolescent bookworms the reasonable depictions of what their lives could be similar to and characters that book lovers could join with instead of overstated spoofs like Infinite Darlene. The issues in the story is that social order has desires for its part and unfortunately being hetero is simply a normal standard and to go against that standard is not taken compassionate. The world is not how it is depicted in Boy Mets Boy the "perfect world" is not this present reality that Lucy exists in. Social order, and Lucy, anticipated that her will like and need young men on the grounds that that is the reason social order has let her know to do. It is terrifying to go against the standards, to go against your folks desires and the desires you had for yourself to acknowledge your emotions as typical. This accentuation on practical issues and circumstances that

The Importance of Formal Reports in Business Communication Essay

The Importance of Formal Reports in Business Communication - Essay Example Although nowadays informal communication methods have overpowered the many formal communication ways, yet formal reports have a niche of their own in the business world. It involves greater length and depth discussion of more complex issues in a better, organized and official way that is easier to read and comprehend. Moreover, formal reports are more informative and persuasive in style with all the essential principles contained in it. It is indeed complete, with all the correct information in a clear and courteous way. It provides all the required information in a concise form (Andrews, 1988). The contemporary style of communication is spreading like a wildfire and has surrounded even the administrative centers by and large, but this cannot take the place of all the important modes and styles of communication in an office where, with the information, the format and presentation along with cohesiveness are of utmost importance (Roebuck, 1999). Thus, it can be concluded that the importance of formal reports cannot be overlooked when considering the future of business communication even today and that it is still being used, and must be used extensively even in future in all administrative centers for it to flourish. Negative messages are those messages that create a negative emotion from the audience. Conveying bad news, a form of a negative message is never easy due to this negative reaction. Composing a message that establishes and maintains goodwill towards another person and at the same time conveying bad news requires ingenuity (Murphy, 1997). In negative messages, it is the tone that determines one's intent. In it, the unpleasant facts are to be presented in such a way that the reader would consider it just and reasonable. It should be written in an honest, tactful and cautious manner in order that the reader does not take it pessimistically.